🇪🇺 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe – Complete Notes

1. The Dream of a Nation-State

Before we understand nationalism, we have to understand what a nation-state is. For most of human history, people did not live in nation-states. They lived in kingdoms, empires, and city-states. A peasant in 1700s Europe thought of himself as a subject of a king or a member of a local village — not as a "Frenchman" or a "German."

Nation vs State — The Critical Difference

The World Before Nationalism

• Kingdoms: Loyalty was to a dynasty, not a nation. People were "subjects of King Louis" not "French citizens."
• Empires: Multi-ethnic, multi-lingual entities like the Ottoman Empire, Austrian Empire, and Russian Empire. People identified by religion or region, not nationality.
• City-States: Independent urban centres (like Venice or Genoa) where identity was tied to the city itself.

2. The Concept of Nationalism

Nationalism is a modern idea. In fact, most historians agree that nationalism was invented in Europe between the late 18th and 19th centuries. It is the belief that the nation should be the fundamental unit of political organisation.

Ernest Renan's Idea of a Nation

Ernest Renan, a French philosopher, gave one of the most famous definitions of a nation in his 1882 lecture "What Is a Nation?" He argued that a nation is not based on race, language, religion, or geography alone. Instead, it is based on two things:

• Shared history: A rich legacy of memories, struggles, sacrifices, and achievements that bind people together.
• Will to live together: A daily plebiscite — a continuous agreement among people to share a common future. If people stop wanting to be together, the nation ceases to exist.

Civic vs Ethnic Nationalism — The Two Models

Factors That Create National Identity

3. The French Revolution and Nationalism

Most historians agree: modern nationalism was born with the French Revolution of 1789. Before 1789, France was a kingdom where people were subjects of the king. After 1789, France became a nation where people were citizens. This was a revolutionary shift.

How the French Revolution Created a Nation

The Levée en masse — The Nation in Arms

In August 1793, the National Convention decreed the levée en masse — the mass conscription of all able-bodied men between 18 and 25 into the French army. This was unprecedented. For the first time, ordinary citizens were required to fight not for a king or a lord, but for the nation. It created a "people's army" and turned the defence of France into a national duty.

4. Napoleon and Nationalism

Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the most paradoxical figures in the history of nationalism. He spread revolutionary nationalist ideas across Europe through his conquests, but his imperial domination also provoked nationalist resistance against France.

The Napoleonic Code (1804) — Spreading Revolutionary Ideals

Napoleon's Conquests and the Spread of Nationalism

The Rise of Nationalist Resistance Against Napoleon

Napoleon's greatest unintended achievement was creating nationalism among his enemies. In Germany, Johann Gottlieb Fichte delivered his "Addresses to the German Nation" (1807–08) calling for German unity against French domination. In Spain, the guerrilla war (1808–14) became a national war of liberation. In Russia, the "Patriotic War of 1812" united Russians against the French invader. The more Napoleon conquered, the more he spread the very nationalist ideas that would eventually destroy his empire.

5. The Vienna Congress (1815)

After Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo (June 1815), the victorious powers — Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain — met in Vienna to redraw Europe's map. The Congress was dominated by the Austrian Chancellor Prince Klemens von Metternich, a staunch conservative who hated nationalism and liberalism.

Key Principles of the Vienna Congress

Territorial Reorganisation of Europe

The Metternich System — Suppressing Nationalism

Metternich was the architect of the post-1815 conservative order. His system aimed to prevent any revolutionary or nationalist movement from threatening the stability of Europe. Key features:

• Carlsbad Decrees (1819): Censored newspapers, dissolved student organisations (Burschenschaften), and placed universities under surveillance in the German Confederation.
• Holy Alliance (1815): Formed by Russia, Austria, and Prussia — these powers agreed to intervene militarily wherever revolution threatened a monarchy.
• Concert of Europe: A system of regular meetings among the great powers to maintain the status quo and suppress revolutionary movements.
• Espionage and repression: Secret police monitored nationalist activities; nationalist literature was banned; leaders were exiled or imprisoned.

Criticism of the Vienna Settlement

• It completely ignored nationalist aspirations — the German and Italian peoples remained divided; the Polish nation was partitioned again.
• It restored unpopular autocratic monarchs who had no respect for the will of the people.
• The settlement was imposed by the powerful without consulting the affected populations — no plebiscites were held anywhere.
• By suppressing nationalism through force, the Congress only postponed the inevitable — by 1848, nationalist revolutions erupted across Europe.

6. Revolutionaries and Secret Societies

Since open political activity was banned in many European states, nationalists organised themselves in secret societies. These societies operated in the shadows, plotting uprisings and spreading revolutionary pamphlets.

The Carbonari — Italy's First Nationalists

• Members were drawn from the middle class, intellectuals, army officers, and even priests.
• They organised uprisings in 1820–21 (Naples, Piedmont) and 1831 (Modena, Parma, Papal States).
• All uprisings were crushed by Austrian troops or local rulers.
• Limitation: The Carbonari had no unified programme or mass support — they were small, elite conspiracies.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy (1831)

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872) realised that secret societies like the Carbonari were too weak. In 1831, while in exile in Marseilles (France), he founded Young Italy (La Giovine Italia) — a new kind of nationalist organisation with a clear goal: a unified, independent Italian republic.

Role of Intellectuals in Spreading Nationalism

Intellectuals — writers, poets, historians, philosophers — were the backbone of early nationalist movements. They wrote pamphlets, composed patriotic poems, wrote national histories, and translated foreign revolutionary ideas into local languages. In societies where most people were illiterate, these intellectuals became the voice of the nation.

The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 (Overview)

1830 Revolutions: France (July Revolution — Charles X overthrown, Louis Philippe installed), Belgium (independence from Netherlands), Poland (November Uprising crushed by Russia), Italy (Carbonari uprisings crushed by Austria), Germany (Hambach Festival 1832).

1848 Revolutions — The Spring of Nations: France (Louis Philippe overthrown; Second Republic declared), German states (Frankfurt Parliament), Italian states (uprisings across Italy; Roman Republic declared), Austrian Empire (Metternich fled; Hungarian independence declared), multiple other states.

7. The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848)

The 1830 Revolution in France

• Cause: King Charles X (ultra-royalist) tried to restore absolute monarchy. In July 1830, he issued the July Ordinances — dissolved the parliament, censored the press, and restricted voting rights.
• Event: "Les Trois Glorieuses" (27–29 July 1830) — barricades went up across Paris; workers, students, and middle-class nationalists fought the royal army.
• Outcome: Charles X fled to England. Louis Philippe, the "Citizen King," was installed as a constitutional monarch. The July Monarchy was established.

The Belgian Revolution (1830)

• Cause: Belgium was forcibly merged with the Netherlands by the Vienna Congress (1815). The Belgians were Catholic and French-speaking; the Dutch were Protestant and Dutch-speaking. There was deep resentment over Dutch domination of the government, economy, and language.
• Event: A revolution broke out in Brussels in August 1830, inspired by the French July Revolution.
• Outcome: Belgium became an independent, neutral state in 1831 with Leopold I as king. This was one of the few successful nationalist revolutions of the period.

The Spring of Nations (1848) — A Continent in Revolt

1848 was the most revolutionary year in 19th-century Europe. Revolutions broke out in over 50 countries. Although almost all were crushed, they permanently weakened the conservative order.

France (February 1848)

• Cause: Louis Philippe's July Monarchy became increasingly corrupt and conservative; economic crisis (poor harvests, high bread prices, mass unemployment); political meetings were banned.
• Event: Banquets (disguised political meetings) were banned → protests → soldiers fired on crowds → barricades across Paris → Louis Philippe abdicated.
• Outcome: Second French Republic proclaimed; universal male suffrage introduced; Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I) elected President. He later staged a coup (1851) and became Emperor Napoleon III (1852).

German States — The Frankfurt Parliament (1848–49)

• Demand: Liberal intellectuals and the middle class demanded a unified Germany with a written constitution.
• Event: An all-German National Assembly met at St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt. They debated the "Grossdeutsch" (including Austria) vs "Kleindeutsch" (excluding Austria) solution.
• Outcome: They offered the crown of a unified Germany to King Frederick William IV of Prussia. He refused, saying, "I will not pick up a crown from the gutter." Prussian troops dissolved the Parliament. The revolution failed.

Italian States (1848–49)

• Demand: Expel Austrian forces; unify Italy under a constitutional government.
• Events: Five Days of Milan (Milan expelled Austrian garrison); Republic of San Marco declared in Venice; Roman Republic declared under Mazzini.
• Outcome: Austrian forces crushed the uprisings in Lombardy and Venetia; French troops restored the Pope in Rome. By 1849, all revolutionary governments had fallen.

Austrian Empire (March 1848)

• Demand: Multiple nationalities within the empire — Hungarians, Czechs, Croats, Romanians, Italians — demanded autonomy or independence.
• Event: In Vienna, students and workers demanded a constitution → Metternich resigned and fled to England (13 March 1848). In Hungary, Lajos Kossuth declared independence.
• Outcome: With Russian military help, Austria crushed the Hungarian revolution (1849). The empire survived but was permanently weakened. Metternich never returned to power.

Why the 1848 Revolutions Failed

Impact of the 1848 Revolutions

• The Metternich System collapsed in Austria — Metternich himself was overthrown.
• Serfdom was abolished in the Austrian Empire.
• Nationalist aspirations were now out in the open — they could not be ignored.
• The failure of liberal nationalism paved the way for a more aggressive, authoritarian nationalism (Bismarck's "blood and iron" approach).
• Within 23 years, both Italy (1861/1871) and Germany (1871) were unified — but by monarchies and armies, not by liberal parliaments.

8. Role of Culture in Nationalism

Nationalism was not just about politics and wars. It was also about culture — art, music, literature, language, and folklore. The Romantic Movement in Europe created the emotional and cultural foundation for nationalism.

Romantic Thinkers and Their Contributions

Language as a Unifying Force

Language was perhaps the most powerful tool of cultural nationalism. In many parts of Europe, nationalists revived, standardised, and promoted vernacular languages that had been suppressed by imperial powers.

Art, Music, and Literature in Nationalism

Allegories: Female Symbols of the Nation

Nations needed visual symbols that people could recognise and rally around. Artists created female allegorical figures to represent abstract ideas like "the nation" or "liberty."

9. Economic Hardship and Revolts

Nationalist revolutions were not only driven by ideas — they were also driven by economic hardship. The 1830s and 1840s were periods of severe economic distress across Europe, which created the social conditions for revolutionary outbreaks.

The Great Economic Depression (1830s)

• A series of poor harvests in the 1830s and 1840s led to sharp increases in food prices, especially bread.
• The potato blight (1845–49) devastated Ireland and also affected mainland Europe.
• Industrialisation created a new urban working class (proletariat) that was vulnerable to unemployment and low wages.
• Trade disruptions and financial crises caused widespread bankruptcies among small businesses.

Rise of Poverty and Unemployment

• In cities like Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Milan, unemployment soared, especially among artisans and skilled workers who were displaced by factory production.
• The gap between the rich bourgeoisie and the poor workers widened dramatically.
• Hungry, desperate people were more willing to take to the streets and build barricades.

Food Shortages and Their Impact

The direct link between food prices and revolution was clear: when bread was expensive, people revolted. The French Revolution of 1848 was triggered by both political grievances and the fact that bread prices had reached their highest level in decades. The same pattern was seen across Europe — high food prices + political repression = revolution.

10. Unification of Germany

Before 1871, Germany was not a unified country. It was a loose collection of 39 independent states (the German Confederation) dominated by Austria. The unification of Germany was achieved under Prussian leadership through a combination of economic strength, military power, and diplomatic genius.

Pre-Unification: The German Confederation (1815–1866)

• Created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a loose association of 39 German states.
• The Confederation was dominated by Austria, which held the presidency.
• Each state was independent; there was no central government, no common army, no common currency.
• Nationalists wanted a unified German nation-state, but the Confederation was designed to prevent unification.

The Role of Prussia

Two factors made Prussia the natural leader of German unification:

Otto von Bismarck — "Blood and Iron"

Otto von Bismarck became Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862. He was a master of Realpolitik — politics based on practical reality, not ideology. In a famous speech to the Prussian parliament, he declared:

"The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority resolutions — that was the mistake of 1848–49 — but by blood and iron."

The Three Wars of German Unification

The Proclamation of the German Empire (18 January 1871)

On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles — the former palace of French kings — King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser). Otto von Bismarck became the first Chancellor of the German Empire. The ceremony was deliberately humiliating for France: German troops were still besieging Paris, and the French king's palace was used to proclaim the German Empire. Germany had become a unified nation-state.

11. Unification of Italy

Before 1861, Italy was — in Metternich's famous phrase — "a geographical expression." The Italian peninsula was divided into seven states, with Austria directly controlling Lombardy and Venetia and indirectly dominating the rest.

Pre-Unification Italy

The Four Architects of Italian Unification

Timeline of Italian Unification

Comparison: German vs Italian Unification

12. Nationalism in Britain

Britain presents a unique case in the history of nationalism. The British nation-state was formed not through a revolutionary unification movement, but through a long process of political unification and imperial expansion. The story of British nationalism is also a story of English domination over Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.

The Formation of Great Britain (1707)

• In 1707, the Act of Union formally united England and Scotland into a single kingdom called Great Britain. Scotland lost its independent parliament but kept its own legal system, church, and educational system.
• Wales had been conquered and annexed by England much earlier (1536 Act of Union).
• Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801 (Act of Union, 1801), abolishing the Irish Parliament.

English Dominance and Suppression of Other Cultures

British Nationalism: An Imperial Identity

British nationalism was different from the nationalism of Italy or Germany. It was not about unifying a divided people — Britain was already unified. Instead, British nationalism was based on:

• Imperial pride: Being British meant belonging to the world's largest empire. The British saw themselves as a chosen people, spreading civilisation, commerce, and Christianity across the globe.
• Constitutional monarchy: The British were proud of their parliamentary system, which they saw as the freest and most advanced in the world.
• Naval supremacy: The Royal Navy was the symbol of British power. "Rule, Britannia! Britannia, rule the waves" was the anthem of British nationalism.
• Economic dominance: Britain was the "workshop of the world" — the first industrial nation. British nationalism was closely tied to industrial and commercial success.

13. Nationalism and Imperialism

By the late 19th century, nationalism had undergone a dangerous transformation. The liberal, democratic nationalism of Mazzini and the 1848 revolutionaries had given way to an aggressive, militaristic nationalism that fuelled imperial expansion and international conflict.

From Liberal to Aggressive Nationalism

Nationalism Leading to Imperial Expansion: The Scramble for Africa

Between 1881 and 1914, European powers carved up Africa among themselves. Having an empire became a measure of national greatness — the bigger your empire, the more "important" your nation.

The Balkans — A Nationalist Powder Keg

The Balkans were the most dangerous region in Europe. A complex mix of ethnic groups (Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, Romanians) lived under two decaying empires — the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Each ethnic group had its own nationalist aspirations, and these aspirations clashed with each other and with the ruling empires.

Nationalism and the Outbreak of World War I (1914)

The chain of events that led to the First World War is directly linked to nationalism:

Legacy of 19th-Century Nationalism

• Positive legacy: Nationalism created modern nation-states — France, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria. It gave ordinary people a sense of identity, belonging, and political participation.
• Negative legacy: Aggressive nationalism led to imperialism (Scramble for Africa), international tensions (the Balkans), and ultimately World War I. The nationalist idea that "my nation is superior to yours" justified colonialism, militarism, and ethnic conflict.
• Unfinished business: Nationalism did not disappear after 1918. It continued to shape European history — leading to World War II, decolonisation, and the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the late 20th century.

14. Important Dates at a Glance

15. Key Terms — Glossary

16. Previous Year Questions (PYQs) — AMU Class 11

Short Questions (2 Marks)

1. What is a nation-state? Give one example from 19th-century Europe.
2. Differentiate between a nation and a state.
3. What was the Levée en masse? How did it contribute to French nationalism?
4. What was the Napoleonic Code? Mention any two of its features.
5. Who dominated the Congress of Vienna (1815)? What was his approach to nationalism?
6. What were the Carlsbad Decrees (1819)?
7. What did Ernest Renan mean when he called a nation a "daily plebiscite"?
8. Who was Giuseppe Mazzini? What was Young Italy?
9. What was the Frankfurt Parliament (1848–49)? Why did it fail?
10. Define "Volksgeist." Who coined this term?
11. What was the Zollverein? Why was it important for German unification?
12. What was the Ems Telegram (1870)? How did Bismarck use it?
13. Who was Marianne? What does she symbolise?
14. What was the "Spring of Nations"?
15. How did Giuseppe Verdi's music contribute to Italian nationalism?

Long Questions (5–8 Marks)

1. Explain how the French Revolution gave birth to modern nationalism. Discuss the role of symbols, songs, and the levée en masse in creating a sense of national identity in France.
2. Analyse the role of the Napoleonic Code in spreading nationalist ideas across Europe. Why did Napoleon's conquests ultimately lead to the rise of nationalism against France?
3. Describe the main features of the Congress of Vienna (1815). What was the Metternich System, and why did it fail to contain nationalism?
4. Compare the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe. Why did the revolutions of 1848 fail despite being more widespread?
5. Examine the role of Romanticism and cultural movements in the rise of nationalism in Europe. Discuss the contributions of Herder, the Brothers Grimm, and Fichte.
6. Discuss the process of Italian unification. Assess the relative contributions of Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II. Who played the most important role?
7. Describe the process of German unification under Bismarck. How did Bismarck use diplomacy and war ("blood and iron") to achieve unification between 1862 and 1871?
8. Compare and contrast the unification of Italy and Germany. What similarities and differences do you find in their processes?
9. Explain the role of art, music, and allegorical figures (Marianne, Germania, Britannia) in developing nationalist sentiment in 19th-century Europe.
10. "Nationalism, which began as a force for liberation and unity, became a force for conflict and imperialism by the early 20th century." Discuss this statement with reference to the Balkans, the Scramble for Africa, and the causes of World War I.