🕊️ Mahatma Gandhi & the National Movement — Ideologies, Early Satyagrahas & Non-Cooperation Movement (1917–1922)

1. Brief Introduction — Who Was Mahatma Gandhi?

• Full name: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
• Born: 2 October 1869, Porbandar, Gujarat
• Father: Karamchand Gandhi (Diwan — Prime Minister of Porbandar state)
• Mother: Putlibai (deeply religious — influenced Gandhi's values of non-violence and fasting)
• Education: Studied law in London (University College London), became a barrister in 1891
• South Africa (1893–1914): Went to South Africa for a legal case. Stayed for 21 years fighting racial discrimination. Developed Satyagraha there — the 1906 campaign against the Asiatic Registration Act (Black Act) and the 1913 Great March of Indian miners. Returned to India in January 1915.
• Title "Mahatma": Given by Rabindranath Tagore (meaning "Great Soul").
• Position in Congress: Entered Indian politics in 1915 (guided by Gopal Krishna Gokhale). By 1920, he became the unquestioned leader of the Indian National Congress.

2. Gandhi's Core Ideologies — The Doctrines Behind the Movements

2.1 Doctrine of Satyagraha

• Meaning: "Truth Force" — Satya (truth) + Agraha (insistence). Active non-violent resistance against injustice.
• Not passive resistance: Gandhi said passive resistance is a weapon of the weak. Satyagraha is a weapon of the strong — it requires immense courage, discipline, and self-suffering.
• Goal: To convert the opponent through moral pressure, not defeat them. The satyagrahi (person practising satyagraha) must be willing to suffer without retaliating.
• Methods: Non-cooperation, civil disobedience, fasting, peaceful picketing, hartals, marches.
• First used: South Africa (1906) against the Asiatic Registration Act. First used in India: Champaran (1917).

2.2 Doctrine of Non-Violence (Ahimsa)

• Meaning: Complete non-violence — not just in action but in thought, word, and deed. Ahimsa is the soul of satyagraha.
• Gandhi's belief: Violence only breeds more violence. Lasting change can only come through non-violent means.
• Practical impact: Every time violence broke out during a movement (Chauri Chaura 1922), Gandhi immediately withdrew the movement. He would rather lose a political campaign than compromise on ahimsa.
• Distinction: Ahimsa ≠ cowardice. Gandhi said: "Where there is a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." But ahimsa is always superior to both.

2.3 Doctrine of Swadeshi

• Meaning: "Of one's own country." Using goods produced in India and rejecting foreign (especially British) goods.
• Economic dimension: Boycott of foreign cloth and British manufactured goods. Promotion of Indian industries — especially khadi (hand-spun, hand-woven cloth). Gandhi believed khadi would provide employment to millions of villagers and reduce India's economic dependence on Britain.
• Social dimension: Reviving village industries (pottery, leather, oil pressing, hand-grinding) to make India self-reliant at the village level.
• Political dimension: Swadeshi was not just economic — it was a statement of national pride and self-respect. Using foreign goods was seen as a sign of slavery.
• The charkha (spinning wheel) became the symbol of the freedom movement — appearing on the Congress flag.

3. The Three Local Satyagrahas — Gandhi's "Practice Runs" in India (1917–1918)

Before launching nation-wide movements, Gandhi tested his methods on three local issues. These were his "dry runs" — and each succeeded, proving that satyagraha worked on Indian soil.

3.1 Champaran Satyagraha (1917) — Bihar

• Issue: The tinkathia system — British indigo planters forced farmers to grow indigo on 3/20th of their land and sell it to the planters at prices fixed by them (which were very low). Even after synthetic indigo was invented, the planters continued the forced cultivation.
• What Gandhi did: Went to Champaran, defied government orders to leave, took statements from 10,000+ peasants, and demanded a government inquiry.
• Outcome: Government set up an inquiry commission (Gandhi was a member). The tinkathia system was abolished. Farmers got compensation.
• Significance: Gandhi's first satyagraha in India. Proved that ordinary villagers could fight injustice non-violently and win.

3.2 Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) — Gujarat

• Issue: Mill workers demanded a 35% wage hike (plague bonus was being withdrawn). Mill owners refused.
• What Gandhi did: Led the workers in a strike. Used hunger strike for the first time — fasted to pressure the mill owners (who respected him).
• Outcome: Strike succeeded. Workers got a 35% wage increase on the third day of Gandhi's fast.
• Significance: First use of hunger strike by Gandhi in India. Laid the foundation for industrial arbitration.

3.3 Kheda Satyagraha (1918) — Gujarat

• Issue: Crop failure due to floods. Peasants could not pay land revenue. The government refused to waive it.
• What Gandhi did: Organised peasants to refuse payment of land revenue. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel joined Gandhi here — this was Patel's first major political work. Patel organised the no-tax campaign brilliantly.
• Outcome: Government gave in — revenue was suspended for poor peasants and reduced for others.
• Significance: First no-tax campaign in India. Showed that the British could be forced to change their policies if people stood united. Patel emerged as a national leader.

4. Causes That Led to the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

4.1 The Rowlatt Act (1919) — The "Black Act"

• What it was: A law that allowed the British government to arrest anyone without trial, search houses without a warrant, and detain people indefinitely. No right of appeal.
• Why it was called "Black": It completely denied basic civil liberties and was seen as the most oppressive law ever passed by the British in India.
• Reaction of the people: Nationwide outrage. Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) on 6 April 1919. The response was massive — shops closed, offices shut, people took to the streets across India.
• Government response: Brutal repression. In Delhi, leaders were arrested. In Punjab, martial law was imposed. This repression led directly to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

4.2 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

• Where: Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab — a walled garden with only one narrow exit.
• When: 13 April 1919 — Baisakhi day (a major Punjabi festival).
• What happened: A peaceful crowd of about 20,000 people had gathered to protest the arrest of leaders Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew. They were unarmed and included women, children, and old people.
• Who ordered the firing: Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer.
• What Dyer did: Blocked the only exit with his troops, then ordered his soldiers to fire on the crowd. They fired 1,650 rounds continuously until ammunition ran low.
• Casualties: Official figure: 379 killed, 1,200+ wounded. Actual numbers likely much higher (many jumped into a well inside the Bagh to escape the bullets).
• Aftermath: Dyer was praised by the British House of Lords (given a Sword of Honour). The Hunter Commission condemned him but no punishment was given. Dyer was eventually dismissed but received £26,000 from a British public fund.

4.3 Impact of Jallianwala Bagh

• Faith in British justice shattered: Indians had believed that the British would eventually listen to reasoned protest. Jallianwala Bagh proved that the British government was capable of cold-blooded massacre.
• Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood in protest — a powerful symbolic gesture that resonated worldwide.
• Gandhi's reaction: He gave up the title "Kaiser-i-Hind" (awarded by the British for his work in South Africa) and called the British government "satanic."
• Mass anger and radicalisation: The massacre created a wave of anger across India. Even moderate Indians turned against British rule. The demand for Swaraj became louder.
• Direct trigger: Jallianwala was the single most important factor that made the Non-Cooperation Movement inevitable.

4.4 The Khilafat Issue

• After World War I (1918), the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) was defeated and dismembered by the British and Allies. The position of the Caliph (Khalifa) — the religious head of Muslims worldwide — was abolished.
• Indian Muslims saw this as an attack on their faith. The Khilafat Committee was formed under the leadership of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Shaukat Ali, and Muhammad Ali (the Ali brothers).
• Gandhi's genius: He saw this as an opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity. He joined the Khilafat movement and linked it with the demand for Swaraj. This created a united front — Hindus and Muslims together fighting the British.

5. Objectives of the Non-Cooperation Movement

1. To redress the Punjab wrongs (Jallianwala Bagh): Seek justice for the victims of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and punishment for General Dyer.
2. To redress the Khilafat wrongs: Secure a just settlement for Turkey and protect the position of the Caliph (Khalifa).
3. To achieve Swaraj (self-rule): The ultimate goal — to pressure the British government into granting Indians the right to govern themselves. The movement aimed to make British rule "unworkable" through non-cooperation.
4. To establish Hindu-Muslim unity: Bring Hindus and Muslims together in a common political struggle, breaking the British "divide and rule" strategy.

6. Methods / Programme of the Non-Cooperation Movement

Gandhi's programme was graduated non-cooperation — a 3-stage plan. The movement was formally launched in August 1920 and approved at the Nagpur Session of Congress (December 1920).

6.1 The Three-Stage Plan

7. Withdrawal of the Movement — The Chauri Chaura Incident (5 February 1922)

7.1 What Happened at Chauri Chaura?

• Place: Chauri Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Date: 5 February 1922.
• What happened: A group of protestors (part of the Non-Cooperation Movement) clashed with the local police. The police opened fire but soon ran out of ammunition. They locked themselves inside the police station. The angry crowd set the police station on fire. 22 policemen were burnt alive.

7.2 Gandhi's Response

• Gandhi was horrified and deeply pained. He immediately called off the entire Non-Cooperation Movement — despite strong opposition from other Congress leaders (including CR Das, Motilal Nehru, and Jawaharlal Nehru) who felt the movement was gaining momentum and should not be withdrawn for one isolated incident.
• Gandhi's reasoning: "Satyagraha cannot succeed if a single satyagrahi remains violent. The movement must be pure in means as well as ends. If we cannot maintain non-violence, it is better to retreat."
• Arrest and trial: Gandhi was arrested in March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to 6 years in prison. In his famous trial statement, he said: "I am here to invite the highest penalty for what I consider to be the highest duty of a citizen — to resist evil." He was released in 1924 (after 2 years) following an appendicitis surgery.

8. Impacts and Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement

Even though the movement was withdrawn before reaching its goal of Swaraj, it had a profound and lasting impact on India's freedom struggle and Indian society:

1. New confidence among Indians (Political Awakening): The movement instilled a new sense of national pride and self-confidence in Indians. For the first time, millions of ordinary Indians — peasants, workers, students, women — participated actively in a national movement. They realised they could collectively challenge the mighty British Empire.
2. Congress became a mass organisation: Before 1920, the Indian National Congress was largely an organisation of educated, upper-class, urban Indians. The Non-Cooperation Movement transformed it into a mass-based organisation reaching villages, small towns, and all sections of society. Congress membership soared to 50 lakh+ (5 million).
3. Hindu-Muslim unity reached its peak: The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance brought Hindus and Muslims together in a common struggle. Joint processions, joint meetings, and joint hartals became common. This was the highest point of Hindu-Muslim unity in the freedom struggle. (Sadly, this unity broke down after the movement was withdrawn.)
4. Notion of British rule being "for the good of Indians" was shattered: Jallianwala Bagh and the British response to the movement destroyed the myth that British rule was beneficial for India. Even moderates became convinced that the British were not going to grant freedoms willingly.
5. Forced the British government to change its policies: The movement forced the British to take Indian public opinion more seriously. It contributed to the passage of the Government of India Act 1919 (though inadequate) and later the Simon Commission (1927) — showing that the British could no longer ignore Indian demands.
6. Promotion of national education: In place of government schools, national schools and colleges were set up across the country — Jamia Millia Islamia (Aligarh, later Delhi), Gujarat Vidyapith, Kashi Vidyapith (Varanasi), Bihar Vidyapith. These institutions promoted Indian culture, languages, and values.
7. The cult of Khadi became pronounced: The Swadeshi movement gave a massive boost to Indian textile mills. Khadi became a symbol of national pride and resistance. The charkha was adopted on the Congress flag. Wearing khadi became a political statement.
8. Women entered the public sphere for the first time: Thousands of women stepped out of their homes for the first time to join processions, picket liquor and foreign cloth shops, and spin khadi. This was a major social change — women became visible participants in the national movement.
9. Removal of untouchability gained momentum: Gandhi's emphasis on removing untouchability brought social reform into the mainstream of the national movement. Temple entry movements gained strength in different parts of India.

9. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)

9.1 Factors Leading to the Civil Disobedience Movement

Between the end of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1922) and the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930), several events pushed India toward another mass struggle:

1. Simon Commission (1927): The British government sent a commission (chaired by Sir John Simon) to India to suggest constitutional reforms — but with no Indian member. The commission was greeted with "Simon Go Back" protests across India. Lala Lajpat Rai died from a lathi charge during a protest in Lahore (October 1928).
2. Nehru Report (1928): An all-Indian committee (headed by Motilal Nehru) drafted a constitution for India demanding Dominion Status (self-rule within the British Empire). When the British government ignored the report, Indian leaders shifted their demand to Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
3. Lahore Session of Congress (December 1929): Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, Congress declared Poorna Swaraj as its goal. 26 January 1930 was celebrated as the first Independence Day — the tricolour flag was hoisted across India.
4. Economic crisis (Great Depression, 1929): The Great Depression hit Indian farmers and peasants hard. Agricultural prices collapsed, but the British refused to reduce land revenue or the salt tax. The salt tax affected every Indian — rich and poor, Hindu and Muslim, urban and rural.
5. The Salt Tax: The British had a monopoly on salt production and levied a heavy tax on it. Making or possessing salt without paying the tax was a criminal offence. Gandhi chose salt as the issue because it was universal, symbolic, and affected everyone.

9.2 The Dandi March (12 March – 6 April 1930)

• Gandhi and 78 volunteers walked from Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad) to Dandi — a coastal village in Gujarat — a distance of 240 miles (385 km) over 24 days.
• As they walked through 48 villages, thousands joined. The march became a worldwide media sensation — journalists from Britain, America, and Europe covered every step.
• On 6 April 1930, Gandhi picked up a handful of salt from the beach at Dandi, thus breaking the salt law. This was the signal for the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

9.3 Spread of the Movement

• Salt satyagraha: Across coastal India, people started making salt illegally. The British arrested over 60,000 people (including Gandhi on 5 May 1930, and Jawaharlal Nehru).
• Boycott of foreign cloth and liquor: Huge bonfires of foreign cloth. Khadi became the only acceptable cloth. Liquor shops were picketed by women volunteers.
• No-tax campaigns: In Gujarat (Sardar Patel organised the Bardoli pattern), Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar — peasants refused to pay land revenue.
• Forest satyagraha: In Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Central Provinces — tribals and villagers entered reserved forests to graze cattle and collect firewood (breaking forest laws).
• Women's participation: Even larger than 1920–22. Sarojini Naidu, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, and thousands of ordinary women joined the movement. Women picketed shops, made salt, and faced lathi charges and arrests.

9.4 The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931)

• Gandhi was released from prison in January 1931. He met Viceroy Lord Irwin and signed a pact on 5 March 1931.
• Terms of the pact:
  • Congress agreed to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement.
  • The British agreed to release political prisoners (except those convicted of violence).
  • The salt tax was relaxed — coastal residents could make salt for their own use.
  • Congress agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference in London.
• Criticism: Many felt Gandhi gave up too much. The demand for Poorna Swaraj was not met. But Gandhi argued that attending the RTC would allow him to present India's case directly to the British government and world opinion.

9.5 Second Round Table Conference (1931) and Revival of the Movement

• Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference (London, September–December 1931) as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.
• The conference failed — the British refused to grant self-government. The communal question (separate electorates for minorities) dominated the discussions and the British used "divide and rule" tactics.
• Gandhi returned to India empty-handed in December 1931. He was arrested again in January 1932. The movement was revived but had lost its earlier energy.
• Communal Award (1932): The British announced separate electorates for Dalits. Gandhi went on a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail (September 1932). This led to the Poona Pact between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar — which gave reserved seats to Dalits within a common electorate (instead of separate electorates).
• The Civil Disobedience Movement was officially withdrawn in 1934.

9.6 Impacts / Significance of the Civil Disobedience Movement

• World attention on India's freedom struggle: The Dandi March was covered by journalists worldwide. The image of a frail Gandhi picking up salt became an iconic symbol of peaceful resistance against colonial injustice. It inspired leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. (USA) and Nelson Mandela (South Africa).
• Mass participation reached new heights: Women, peasants, tribals, and workers participated in unprecedented numbers. The movement reached the deepest sections of Indian society.
• Poorna Swaraj became the official demand: From Dominion Status, the goal of the freedom struggle shifted to complete independence. This was never compromised again.
• British repression exposed: The arrest of 60,000+ peaceful protestors and the lathi charges on women and volunteers exposed the brutal face of British rule to the world.
• Government of India Act 1935: The British were forced to introduce constitutional reforms. The Government of India Act 1935 (though still inadequate) provided for provincial autonomy and elections — a direct result of the pressure created by the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Political consciousness among peasants and tribals: The forest satyagrahas and no-tax campaigns politicised rural India. Villagers who had never heard of the Congress became active participants in the national movement.

10. Comparison — Non-Cooperation Movement vs Civil Disobedience Movement

11. Previous Year Questions (PYQs) — ICSE Board

2-Mark / 3-Mark Questions:

1. What is meant by Satyagraha? Who gave this concept?
2. What was the Rowlatt Act? Why was it called the "Black Act"?
3. What happened at Jallianwala Bagh on 13 April 1919? Who ordered the firing?
4. What was the Khilafat issue? Why did Gandhi support it?
5. Name any three early satyagrahas of Gandhi in India. Write the year of each.
6. Why did Gandhi withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement?
7. Name the incident that led to the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
8. What was the Chauri Chaura incident? When and where did it take place?
9. What were the objectives of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
10. What is meant by Swadeshi? How is it different from boycott?
11. Why did Gandhi choose salt as the issue for civil disobedience?
12. What was the Dandi March? When did it start and end?
13. What were the terms of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)?
14. What was the Poona Pact? Between whom was it signed?
15. What was the significance of the Lahore Session of Congress (1929)?

5-Mark / 8-Mark Questions:

1. Describe the role of Mahatma Gandhi in the Non-Cooperation Movement. What were its objectives and methods?
2. Explain the factors that led to the Non-Cooperation Movement (Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat issue).
3. What was the programme of the Non-Cooperation Movement? Explain the three-stage plan.
4. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement withdrawn? What was the significance of the Chauri Chaura incident?
5. Explain the impacts and significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement on India's freedom struggle.
6. Describe the three local satyagrahas of Gandhi in India (Champaran, Ahmedabad, Kheda). Why were they important?
7. "The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre were the turning points in India's freedom struggle." Explain.
8. Describe the core ideologies of Mahatma Gandhi (Satyagraha, Ahimsa, Swadeshi). How did these shape his approach to the national movement?
9. Explain the factors that led to the Civil Disobedience Movement. What was the significance of the Dandi March?
10. Describe the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934) — its programme, spread, and impact.
11. What was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)? Why was it criticised? What were its terms?
12. Compare and contrast the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience Movement.
13. Describe the role of women in the Civil Disobedience Movement.