🇺🇳 The United Nations — Establishment, Objectives, Organs & Functions

1. Background — Why Was the UN Created?

The UN was created in the aftermath of World War II (1939–1945), the deadliest conflict in human history (~70–85 million deaths). The League of Nations (established 1920 after WWI) had failed to prevent WWII due to:

• Absence of major powers (USA never joined; USSR joined late but was expelled)
• Lack of enforcement power (no army; decisions required unanimous consent)
• Rise of aggressive dictatorships (Hitler's Germany, Mussolini's Italy, Militarist Japan)

World leaders resolved to create a stronger, more effective international organisation to maintain peace and prevent future wars.

1.1 When and Where Was the UN Established?

• Date of establishment: 24 October 1945 (UN Day)
• Headquarters: New York City, USA (on land donated by John D. Rockefeller Jr.)
• Number of original members: 51
• Current members: 193 (as of 2026 — South Sudan joined in 2011 as the 193rd member)
• Official languages: 6 — Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish
• Secretaries-General (historically): Trygve Lie (Norway, 1946–1952), Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden, 1953–1961), U Thant (Myanmar, 1961–1971), Kurt Waldheim (Austria, 1972–1981), Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru, 1982–1991), Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt, 1992–1996), Kofi Annan (Ghana, 1997–2006), Ban Ki-moon (South Korea, 2007–2016), António Guterres (Portugal, 2017–present)

2. Aims, Objectives & Principles of the UN

2.1 Purposes / Objectives of the UN (Article 1 of UN Charter)

1. Maintain international peace and security — the primary purpose. Take collective measures to prevent and remove threats to peace.
2. Develop friendly relations among nations — based on the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples.
3. Achieve international cooperation — in solving economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems. Promote and encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
4. Be a centre for harmonising the actions of nations — to coordinate efforts towards achieving these common goals.

2.2 Principles of the UN (Article 2 of UN Charter)

1. Sovereign equality — all member states are equal in the UN.
2. Good faith fulfilment of obligations — members must carry out their Charter obligations in good faith.
3. Peaceful settlement of disputes — all disputes must be resolved through peaceful means (negotiation, mediation, arbitration, judicial settlement).
4. Refrain from threat or use of force — against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.
5. Assistance to the UN — members must assist the UN in any action it takes under the Charter.
6. Non-intervention in domestic matters — the UN cannot intervene in matters that are essentially within a state's domestic jurisdiction (Article 2(7) — the sovereignty clause).

3. The Six Principal Organs of the UN

4. The General Assembly (GA) — The World's Parliament

4.1 Composition

• Members: All 193 member states of the UN — each has one vote (principle of sovereign equality).
• Representation: Each member sends up to 5 delegates, but only one vote per country.
• President: Elected annually from among the member states (rotates among regional groups — African, Asia-Pacific, Eastern European, Latin American & Caribbean, Western European & Others).
• Sessions: Annual regular session from September to December (General Debate in the last week of September). Special/Emergency sessions can be called.

4.2 Functions and Powers of the General Assembly

4.3 Voting in the General Assembly

• One country, one vote — regardless of size, population, or wealth.
• Two-thirds majority required for "important questions" (peace & security, admission of members, budget, amendments, election of SC members).
• Simple majority for all other questions.
• Resolutions are NOT legally binding — they are recommendations. However, they carry moral and political weight.

4.4 Main Committees of the General Assembly

The GA has 6 Main Committees that handle specific agenda items before they reach the full Assembly:

1. First Committee (DISEC) — Disarmament & International Security
2. Second Committee (ECOFIN) — Economic & Financial
3. Third Committee (SOCHUM) — Social, Humanitarian & Cultural
4. Fourth Committee (SPECPOL) — Special Political & Decolonisation
5. Fifth Committee (ACABQ) — Administrative & Budgetary
6. Sixth Committee (LEGAL) — Legal

5. The Security Council (SC) — The UN's Enforcement Arm

5.1 Composition of the Security Council

5.2 Functions and Powers of the Security Council

5.3 Veto Power — The Most Criticised Feature

• What is it? Any of the 5 permanent members can vote "No" on a substantive resolution and block it — even if the other 14 members vote in favour.
• Procedural matters: Veto does NOT apply (needs 9/15 votes). But what counts as "procedural" is itself subject to veto (the "double veto" problem).
• Abstention: A permanent member can abstain without vetoing (this is common — e.g., India-related resolutions where Russia/China abstain).
• History: USSR used veto ~120 times during the Cold War. USA has vetoed ~80+ times (most on Israel-related resolutions). China has vetoed ~15+ times. Russia vetoed ~25+ times (including on Syria, Ukraine).
• Criticism: Veto power is undemocratic — it reflects the power structure of 1945, not 2026. P5 rarely vetoes on matters affecting their own interests. Reforming the veto is a major demand of the Global South.

5.4 Peacekeeping — The UN's Most Visible Activity

• UN Peacekeeping: Deployed to help countries transition from conflict to peace. Authorised by SC, troops contributed voluntarily by member states (not a standing UN army).
• Three Principles: (1) Consent of parties, (2) Impartiality, (3) Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate.
• Current missions: ~12 active missions (down from ~16 in 2015). Largest: MINUSMA (Mali), MONUSCO (DRC), UNMISS (South Sudan).
• Blue Helmets: ~70,000 troops from ~120 countries. India is the 3rd largest troop contributor (after Bangladesh and Pakistan).
• Nobel Peace Prize: UN Peacekeeping Forces have won the Nobel Peace Prize (1988).

5.5 Security Council Reform — The Demand

• Why reform? The SC represents the world of 1945 (P5 = WWII victors), not 2026. Africa (54 countries) has NO permanent seat. Latin America, Asia, and the Arab world are underrepresented.
• G4 Nations — India, Japan, Germany, Brazil — demand permanent seats (with or without veto).
• Uniting for Consensus (Coffee Club) — Italy, Pakistan, South Korea, Canada, Mexico, Argentina — oppose expansion of permanent seats; prefer elected 2-year seats.
• African Union position — demands 2 permanent seats for Africa (with veto).
• Current status: Intergovernmental negotiations (IGN) ongoing since 2008. No consensus reached. Any Charter amendment needs 2/3 GA + all 5 P5 ratification — so P5 can block their own reduction in power.

6. International Court of Justice (ICJ) — The World Court

6.1 Composition

• Number of judges: 15 judges, elected for 9-year terms (renewable).
• Election: By absolute majority in both the General Assembly AND the Security Council (simultaneous voting — candidates must get majority in both).
• Geographical distribution: 3 from Africa, 2 from Latin America, 3 from Asia, 5 from Western Europe & Others, 2 from Eastern Europe (unofficial convention).
• Qualifications: Judges must be persons of high moral character who qualify for the highest judicial offices in their own countries or are jurists of recognised competence in international law.
• The P5 convention: Each permanent member of the SC (USA, UK, France, Russia, China) ALWAYS has a judge on the ICJ (not legally required, but a diplomatic convention).
• President & Vice-President: Elected by the judges for a 3-year term (renewable).
• No two judges from the same nationality — ensures diversity.
• Ad hoc judges: If a party to a case does not have a judge of its nationality on the bench, it can appoint an ad hoc judge for that case only.

6.2 Jurisdiction of the ICJ

6.3 How a Case Reaches the ICJ

1. Application filed — by one or both states to the ICJ Registry.
2. Written proceedings — both parties submit written memorials and counter-memorials.
3. Oral proceedings — public hearings where lawyers argue the case.
4. Judgment — delivered in open court by majority vote. Judges may write separate (concurring or dissenting) opinions.
5. Binding & final — the ICJ's judgment is binding on the parties and there is no appeal. If a party does not comply, the other party can approach the Security Council.

6.4 Compulsory vs Optional Jurisdiction

• Compulsory (treaties): If states have signed a treaty that includes an ICJ dispute-resolution clause (e.g., Vienna Convention on Consular Relations), the ICJ automatically has jurisdiction.
• Optional Clause (Article 36(2)): States can declare that they accept ICJ jurisdiction as compulsory — but many states (including India) have made such declarations with reservations (excluding certain types of disputes). India's declaration excludes disputes with Commonwealth countries, treaty partners, and matters within India's domestic jurisdiction.

6.5 India and the ICJ

• India has been a member of the ICJ since 1945 (though the ICJ started in 1946).
• Indian judges on the ICJ: Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (1952–1953), Nagendra Singh (1973–1988 — also served as President 1985–1988), R.S. Pathak (1989–1991), Dalveer Bhandari (2012–present; re-elected in 2018 for a 2nd term ending 2027).
• Kulbhushan Jadhav case (2017): India filed a case against Pakistan for denying consular access to Jadhav (sentenced to death by Pakistani military court). ICJ ruled in India's favour — Pakistan must provide "effective review and reconsideration" of the sentence and grant consular access.
• Enrica Lexie case (2015): Italy vs India — dispute over the killing of Indian fishermen by Italian marines. PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration) — not ICJ — ruled that India can prosecute the marines but Italy has jurisdiction over the ship.

7. Comparison — General Assembly vs Security Council

8. Specialised Agencies of the UN

The UN works through specialised agencies — autonomous organisations linked by agreements. Some important ones for ICSE:

9. Previous Year Questions (PYQs) — ICSE Board

2-Mark / 3-Mark Questions:

1. When was the United Nations established? Why is 24 October celebrated as UN Day?
2. State any two objectives of the United Nations.
3. Name the six principal organs of the United Nations.
4. Where is the headquarters of the ICJ located?
5. What is the composition of the General Assembly?
6. What is the composition of the Security Council?
7. What is veto power? Name the five permanent members of the Security Council.
8. How many judges are there in the ICJ? What is their term of office?
9. Name any two specialised agencies of the UN and their headquarters.
10. What is the difference between a recommendation by the General Assembly and a decision by the Security Council?
11. What is the Uniting for Peace Resolution?
12. What is the role of the UN in peacekeeping? Name any two UN peacekeeping missions.

5-Mark / 8-Mark Questions:

1. Describe the composition and functions of the General Assembly. Why are its resolutions called "recommendations"?
2. Describe the composition and functions of the Security Council. Explain the veto power and why it is criticised.
3. Describe the composition and jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. How is a case brought before the ICJ?
4. Compare and contrast the General Assembly and the Security Council on the basis of composition, voting, powers, and nature of decisions.
5. Explain the objectives and principles of the United Nations as laid down in the UN Charter.
6. Discuss the need for Security Council reform. What are the main proposals for reform and why has it not been achieved?
7. Describe India's role and contribution to the United Nations (peacekeeping, ICJ, reforms).
8. Explain the role of the UN in maintaining international peace and security. What is the difference between Chapter VI and Chapter VII actions?